What Is Mass Of Proton

Subatomic particle with positive accuse

Proton

The quark content of a proton. The color assignment of individual quarks is arbitrary, just all three colors must be present. Forces between quarks are mediated by gluons.
Classification	Baryon
Composition	ii upwardly quarks (u), 1 downwardly quark (d)
Statistics	Fermionic
Family unit	Hadron
Interactions	Gravity, electromagnetic, weak, strong
Symbol	p , p + , N + , one 1 H +
Antiparticle	Antiproton
Theorized	William Prout (1815)
Discovered	Observed every bit H+ by Eugen Goldstein (1886). Identified in other nuclei (and named) by Ernest Rutherford (1917–1920).
Mass	1.672621 923 69(51)×10−27 kg [one] 1.007276 466 621(53) Da [2] 938.272088 sixteen(29)MeV/c two [iii]
Hateful lifetime	> 3.6×1029 years [iv] (stable)
Electric accuse	+1e 1.602176 634 ×10−nineteen C [v]
Charge radius	0.8414(19) fm [5]
Electrical dipole moment	< ii.i×ten−25east⋅cm [6]
Electric polarizability	0.00112(4) fm3
Magnetic moment	ane.410606 797 36(60)×10−26 J⋅T−1 [7] 1.521032 202 30(46)×10−3μ B [five] 2.792847 344 63(82)μ N [eight]
Magnetic polarizability	1.9(five)×x−4 fmthree
Spin	1 / 2
Isospin	ane / 2
Parity	+ane
Condensed	I(J P ) = 1 / 2 ( 1 / 2 +)

A proton is a stable subatomic particle, symbol
p
, H⁺, or ¹H⁺ with a positive electric charge of +1e elementary charge. Its mass is slightly less than that of a neutron and 1836 times the mass of an electron (the proton–electron mass ratio). Protons and neutrons, each with masses of approximately one atomic mass unit, are jointly referred to as "nucleons" (particles present in atomic nuclei).

One or more protons are present in the nucleus of every cantlet. They provide the attractive electrostatic central force which binds the atomic electrons. The number of protons in the nucleus is the defining property of an chemical element, and is referred to equally the atomic number (represented past the symbol Z). Since each chemical element has a unique number of protons, each element has its own unique atomic number, which determines the number of atomic electrons and consequently the chemical characteristics of the element.

The word proton is Greek for "first", and this name was given to the hydrogen nucleus by Ernest Rutherford in 1920. In previous years, Rutherford had discovered that the hydrogen nucleus (known to be the lightest nucleus) could be extracted from the nuclei of nitrogen by atomic collisions.^[9] Protons were therefore a candidate to be a fundamental or elementary particle, and hence a edifice block of nitrogen and all other heavier atomic nuclei.

Although protons were originally considered elementary particles, in the modern Standard Model of particle physics, protons are now known to be composite particles, containing three valence quarks, and together with neutrons are now classified as hadrons. Protons are composed of two up quarks of charge + two / 3 due east and one down quark of charge − 1 / 3 e. The rest masses of quarks contribute only about i% of a proton's mass.^[10] The residual of a proton's mass is due to quantum chromodynamics bounden free energy, which includes the kinetic energy of the quarks and the energy of the gluon fields that bind the quarks together. Because protons are not fundamental particles, they possess a measurable size; the root mean square charge radius of a proton is about 0.84–0.87 fm (or 0.84×10⁻¹⁵ to 0.87×10⁻¹⁵ m).^{[11] [12]} In 2019, ii different studies, using unlike techniques, found this radius to be 0.833 fm, with an incertitude of ±0.010 fm.^{[thirteen] [14]}

Complimentary protons occur occasionally on Globe: thunderstorms can produce protons with energies of up to several tens of MeV.^{[15] [sixteen]} At sufficiently low temperatures and kinetic energies, gratis protons will bind to electrons. Yet, the character of such bound protons does not change, and they remain protons. A fast proton moving through matter will dull by interactions with electrons and nuclei, until it is captured by the electron cloud of an atom. The result is a protonated atom, which is a chemic chemical compound of hydrogen. In a vacuum, when gratis electrons are nowadays, a sufficiently slow proton may pick upwards a unmarried free electron, becoming a neutral hydrogen cantlet, which is chemically a gratis radical. Such "free hydrogen atoms" tend to react chemically with many other types of atoms at sufficiently depression energies. When free hydrogen atoms react with each other, they form neutral hydrogen molecules (H₂), which are the nearly common molecular component of molecular clouds in interstellar space.

Free protons are routinely used for accelerators for proton therapy or various particle physics experiments, with the most powerful example being the Large Hadron Collider.

Description [edit]

Unsolved problem in physics:

How do the quarks and gluons carry the spin of protons?

Protons are spin- i / 2 fermions and are composed of three valence quarks,^[17] making them baryons (a sub-type of hadrons). The two up quarks and one down quark of a proton are held together by the strong forcefulness, mediated by gluons.^{[18] : 21–22} A modern perspective has a proton composed of the valence quarks (up, upward, downwardly), the gluons, and transitory pairs of ocean quarks. Protons have a positive charge distribution which decays approximately exponentially, with a root mean square charge radius of about 0.eight fm.^[nineteen]

Protons and neutrons are both nucleons, which may be bound together past the nuclear strength to grade atomic nuclei. The nucleus of the well-nigh common isotope of the hydrogen atom (with the chemical symbol "H") is a alone proton. The nuclei of the heavy hydrogen isotopes deuterium and tritium contain one proton bound to one and two neutrons, respectively. All other types of atomic nuclei are composed of ii or more than protons and diverse numbers of neutrons.

History [edit]

The concept of a hydrogen-similar particle equally a constituent of other atoms was developed over a long menses. Equally early as 1815, William Prout proposed that all atoms are composed of hydrogen atoms (which he chosen "protyles"), based on a simplistic interpretation of early on values of atomic weights (see Prout'due south hypothesis), which was disproved when more accurate values were measured.^{[xx] : 39–42}

In 1886, Eugen Goldstein discovered canal rays (also known as anode rays) and showed that they were positively charged particles (ions) produced from gases. However, since particles from different gases had different values of charge-to-mass ratio (due east/grand), they could not be identified with a single particle, dissimilar the negative electrons discovered by J. J. Thomson. Wilhelm Wien in 1898 identified the hydrogen ion as the particle with the highest charge-to-mass ratio in ionized gases.^[21]

Following the discovery of the atomic nucleus by Ernest Rutherford in 1911, Antonius van den Broek proposed that the place of each chemical element in the periodic table (its atomic number) is equal to its nuclear charge. This was confirmed experimentally by Henry Moseley in 1913 using Ten-ray spectra.

In 1917 (in experiments reported in 1919 and 1925), Rutherford proved that the hydrogen nucleus is nowadays in other nuclei, a result usually described as the discovery of protons.^[22] These experiments began later Rutherford had noticed that, when alpha particles were shot into air (mostly nitrogen), his scintillation detectors showed the signatures of typical hydrogen nuclei as a production. Subsequently experimentation Rutherford traced the reaction to the nitrogen in air and constitute that when alpha particles were introduced into pure nitrogen gas, the effect was larger. In 1919 Rutherford assumed that the blastoff particle merely knocked a proton out of nitrogen, turning it into carbon. Later on observing Blackett's cloud chamber images in 1925, Rutherford realized that the alpha particle was absorbed. Later on capture of the blastoff particle, a hydrogen nucleus is ejected, so that heavy oxygen, non carbon, is the result – i.e., the atomic number Z of the nucleus is increased rather than reduced. This was the outset reported nuclear reaction, ^xivDue north + α → ¹⁷O + p. Rutherford at first thought of our mod "p" in this equation as a hydrogen ion, H⁺ .

Depending on one's perspective, either 1919 (when it was seen experimentally equally derived from another source than hydrogen) or 1920 (when it was recognized and proposed as an elementary particle) may exist regarded as the moment when the proton was 'discovered'.

Rutherford knew hydrogen to be the simplest and lightest element and was influenced by Prout's hypothesis that hydrogen was the building block of all elements. Discovery that the hydrogen nucleus is present in other nuclei as an unproblematic particle led Rutherford to give the hydrogen nucleus H⁺ a special name as a particle, since he suspected that hydrogen, the lightest element, contained simply one of these particles. He named this new cardinal edifice block of the nucleus the proton, subsequently the neuter singular of the Greek word for "first", πρῶτον . However, Rutherford also had in listen the word protyle as used past Prout. Rutherford spoke at the British Association for the Advancement of Science at its Cardiff meeting beginning 24 August 1920.^[23] At the coming together, he was asked past Oliver Lodge for a new name for the positive hydrogen nucleus to avoid confusion with the neutral hydrogen cantlet. He initially suggested both proton and prouton (after Prout).^[24] Rutherford later reported that the meeting had accepted his proposition that the hydrogen nucleus be named the "proton", following Prout's give-and-take "protyle".^[25] The get-go employ of the give-and-take "proton" in the scientific literature appeared in 1920.^{[26] [27]}

Stability [edit]

Unsolved problem in physics:

Are protons fundamentally stable? Or do they disuse with a finite lifetime as predicted by some extensions to the standard model?

The free proton (a proton not bound to nucleons or electrons) is a stable particle that has non been observed to break downward spontaneously to other particles. Free protons are establish naturally in a number of situations in which energies or temperatures are loftier enough to separate them from electrons, for which they take some affinity. Free protons exist in plasmas in which temperatures are likewise high to allow them to combine with electrons. Gratuitous protons of high energy and velocity make up 90% of cosmic rays, which propagate in vacuum for interstellar distances. Free protons are emitted directly from diminutive nuclei in some rare types of radioactive decay. Protons also effect (along with electrons and antineutrinos) from the radioactive decay of free neutrons, which are unstable.

The spontaneous disuse of gratuitous protons has never been observed, and protons are therefore considered stable particles according to the Standard Model. However, some thousand unified theories (GUTs) of particle physics predict that proton decay should take place with lifetimes between 10³¹ to x³⁶ years and experimental searches have established lower bounds on the mean lifetime of a proton for diverse assumed decay products.^{[28] [29] [30]}

Experiments at the Super-Kamiokande detector in Japan gave lower limits for proton mean lifetime of vi.6×10³³ years for disuse to an antimuon and a neutral pion, and 8.2×10³³ years for decay to a positron and a neutral pion.^[31] Some other experiment at the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory in Canada searched for gamma rays resulting from balance nuclei resulting from the decay of a proton from oxygen-16. This experiment was designed to observe decay to any product, and established a lower limit to a proton lifetime of 2.1×10²⁹ years.^[32]

Even so, protons are known to transform into neutrons through the process of electron capture (also chosen inverse beta decay). For free protons, this procedure does not occur spontaneously but only when energy is supplied. The equation is:

p ⁺
+
e ⁻
→
n
+
ν
_e

The process is reversible; neutrons can convert back to protons through beta decay, a common course of radioactive decay. In fact, a gratis neutron decays this way, with a mean lifetime of about xv minutes. A proton can likewise transform into neutrons through beta plus decay (β+ disuse).

Co-ordinate to quantum field theory, the mean proper lifetime of protons ${\displaystyle \tau _{\mathrm {p} }}$ becomes finite when they are accelerating with proper acceleration ${\displaystyle a}$ , and ${\displaystyle \tau _{\mathrm {p} }}$ decreases with increasing ${\displaystyle a}$ . Dispatch gives rise to a not-vanishing probability for the transition
p ⁺
→
north
+
eastward ⁺
+
ν
_{due east} . This was a matter of concern in the subsequently 1990s because ${\displaystyle \tau _{\mathrm {p} }}$ is a scalar that can be measured by the inertial and coaccelerated observers. In the inertial frame, the accelerating proton should decay co-ordinate to the formula to a higher place. All the same, according to the coaccelerated observer the proton is at rest and hence should not disuse. This puzzle is solved by realizing that in the coaccelerated frame there is a thermal bath due to Fulling–Davies–Unruh effect, an intrinsic upshot of quantum field theory. In this thermal bath, experienced by the proton, there are electrons and antineutrinos with which the proton may collaborate co-ordinate to the processes: (i)
p ⁺
+
e ⁻
→
n
+
ν
, (two)
p ⁺
+
ν
→
n
+
e ⁺
and (iii)
p ⁺
+
e ⁻
+
ν
→
n
. Adding the contributions of each of these processes, one should obtain ${\displaystyle \tau _{\mathrm {p} }}$ .^{[33] [34] [35] [36]}

Quarks and the mass of a proton [edit]

In quantum chromodynamics, the modernistic theory of the nuclear force, nearly of the mass of protons and neutrons is explained by special relativity. The mass of a proton is virtually 80–100 times greater than the sum of the remainder masses of its three valence quarks, while the gluons have zero rest mass. The actress energy of the quarks and gluons in a proton, as compared to the rest energy of the quarks lonely in the QCD vacuum, accounts for almost 99% of the proton'south mass. The rest mass of a proton is, thus, the invariant mass of the organisation of moving quarks and gluons that make up the particle, and, in such systems, even the free energy of massless particles is notwithstanding measured every bit part of the rest mass of the system.

2 terms are used in referring to the mass of the quarks that make upward protons: electric current quark mass refers to the mass of a quark by itself, while elective quark mass refers to the current quark mass plus the mass of the gluon particle field surrounding the quark.^{[37] : 285–286 [38] : 150–151} These masses typically have very different values. The kinetic energy of the quarks that is a consequence of confinement is a contribution (see Mass in special relativity). Using lattice QCD calculations, the contributions to the mass of the proton are the quark condensate (~9%, comprising the upwards and down quarks and a sea of virtual foreign quarks), the quark kinetic energy (~32%), the gluon kinetic free energy (~37%), and the anomalous gluonic contribution (~23%, comprising contributions from condensates of all quark flavors).^[39]

The constituent quark model wavefunction for the proton is

$${\displaystyle \mathrm {|p_{\uparrow }\rangle ={\tfrac {i}{\sqrt {xviii}}}\left(2|u_{\uparrow }d_{\downarrow }u_{\uparrow }\rangle +two|u_{\uparrow }u_{\uparrow }d_{\downarrow }\rangle +two|d_{\downarrow }u_{\uparrow }u_{\uparrow }\rangle -|u_{\uparrow }u_{\downarrow }d_{\uparrow }\rangle -|u_{\uparrow }d_{\uparrow }u_{\downarrow }\rangle -|u_{\downarrow }d_{\uparrow }u_{\uparrow }\rangle -|d_{\uparrow }u_{\downarrow }u_{\uparrow }\rangle -|d_{\uparrow }u_{\uparrow }u_{\downarrow }\rangle -|u_{\downarrow }u_{\uparrow }d_{\uparrow }\rangle \right)} .}$$

The internal dynamics of protons are complicated, because they are determined by the quarks' exchanging gluons, and interacting with various vacuum condensates. Lattice QCD provides a mode of calculating the mass of a proton direct from the theory to whatever accuracy, in principle. The about recent calculations^{[40] [41]} claim that the mass is determined to meliorate than 4% accuracy, even to one% accuracy (see Figure S5 in Dürr et al. ^[41]). These claims are still controversial, because the calculations cannot even so be done with quarks every bit low-cal every bit they are in the real world. This means that the predictions are found by a process of extrapolation, which can introduce systematic errors.^[42] It is hard to tell whether these errors are controlled properly, considering the quantities that are compared to experiment are the masses of the hadrons, which are known in accelerate.

These recent calculations are performed past massive supercomputers, and, as noted by Boffi and Pasquini: "a detailed description of the nucleon construction is notwithstanding missing because ... long-distance behavior requires a nonperturbative and/or numerical treatment ..."^[43] More than conceptual approaches to the structure of protons are: the topological soliton approach originally due to Tony Skyrme and the more accurate AdS/QCD approach that extends it to include a cord theory of gluons,^[44] various QCD-inspired models like the pocketbook model and the constituent quark model, which were popular in the 1980s, and the SVZ sum rules, which permit for rough guess mass calculations.^[45] These methods do not have the same accuracy as the more creature-forcefulness lattice QCD methods, at least not yet.

Charge radius [edit]

The problem of defining a radius for an diminutive nucleus (proton) is like to the problem of atomic radius, in that neither atoms nor their nuclei have definite boundaries. Yet, the nucleus can exist modeled as a sphere of positive accuse for the estimation of electron scattering experiments: considering in that location is no definite boundary to the nucleus, the electrons "see" a range of cantankerous-sections, for which a hateful can exist taken. The qualification of "rms" (for "root hateful square") arises considering information technology is the nuclear cross-section, proportional to the square of the radius, which is determining for electron scattering.

The internationally accepted value of a proton's charge radius is 0.8768 fm (run into orders of magnitude for comparison to other sizes). This value is based on measurements involving a proton and an electron (namely, electron scattering measurements and complex calculation involving handful cantankerous section based on Rosenbluth equation for momentum-transfer cross department), and studies of the atomic energy levels of hydrogen and deuterium.

However, in 2010 an international research team published a proton charge radius measurement via the Lamb shift in muonic hydrogen (an exotic cantlet made of a proton and a negatively charged muon). Equally a muon is 200 times heavier than an electron, its de Broglie wavelength is correspondingly shorter. This smaller atomic orbital is much more sensitive to the proton'due south charge radius, so allows more than precise measurement. Their measurement of the root-hateful-square charge radius of a proton is " 0.84184(67) fm, which differs past 5.0 standard deviations from the CODATA value of 0.8768(69) fm".^[46] In January 2013, an updated value for the charge radius of a proton— 0.84087(39) fm—was published. The precision was improved by 1.7 times, increasing the significance of the discrepancy to viiσ.^[12] The 2014 CODATA adjustment slightly reduced the recommended value for the proton radius (computed using electron measurements just) to 0.8751(61) fm, but this leaves the discrepancy at 5.6σ.

If no errors were found in the measurements or calculations, it would accept been necessary to re-examine the world's most precise and best-tested cardinal theory: quantum electrodynamics.^[47] The proton radius was a puzzle as of 2017.^{[48] [49]}

A resolution came in 2019, when two different studies, using different techniques involving the Lamb shift of the electron in hydrogen, and electron–proton handful, institute the radius of the proton to be 0.833 fm, with an uncertainty of ±0.010 fm, and 0.831 fm.^{[13] [14]}

The radius of the proton is linked to the course factor and momentum-transfer cross section. The atomic class cistron Thousand modifies the cantankerous section corresponding to point-like proton.

${\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}R_{\text{e}}^{ii}&=-6{{\frac {dG_{\text{e}}}{dq^{ii}}}\,{\Bigg \vert }\,}_{q^{2}=0}\\{\frac {d\sigma }{d\Omega }}\ &={{\frac {d\sigma }{d\Omega }}\,{\Bigg \vert }\,}_{\text{point}}G^{2}(q^{2})\finish{aligned}}}$

The atomic form cistron is related to the moving ridge office density of the target:

${\displaystyle G(q^{2})=\int eastward^{iqr}\psi (r)^{2}\,dr^{three}}$

The grade cistron can be split up in electrical and magnetic grade factors. These can be further written as linear combinations of Dirac and Pauli form factors.^[49]

${\displaystyle {\brainstorm{aligned}G_{\text{m}}&=F_{\text{D}}+F_{\text{P}}\\G_{\text{due east}}&=F_{\text{D}}-\tau F_{\text{P}}\\{\frac {d\sigma }{d\Omega }}&={{\frac {d\sigma }{d\Omega }}\,{\Bigg \vert }\,}_{NS}{\frac {ane}{one+\tau }}\left(G_{\text{e}}^{2}\left(q^{2}\right)+{\frac {\tau }{\epsilon }}G_{\text{k}}^{2}\left(q^{2}\right)\correct)\end{aligned}}}$

Pressure inside the proton [edit]

Since the proton is composed of quarks confined past gluons, an equivalent pressure which acts on the quarks can be divers. This allows calculation of their distribution as a function of altitude from the centre using Compton scattering of high-energy electrons (DVCS, for securely virtual Compton scattering). The pressure level is maximum at the centre, almost x³⁵ Pa, which is greater than the pressure inside a neutron star.^[50] It is positive (repulsive) to a radial altitude of about 0.6 fm, negative (attractive) at greater distances, and very weak beyond almost two fm.

Charge radius in solvated proton, hydronium [edit]

The radius of the hydrated proton appears in the Built-in equation for calculating the hydration enthalpy of hydronium.

Interaction of free protons with ordinary affair [edit]

Although protons have affinity for oppositely charged electrons, this is a relatively low-energy interaction and so gratuitous protons must lose sufficient velocity (and kinetic free energy) in order to become closely associated and bound to electrons. High energy protons, in traversing ordinary matter, lose energy by collisions with atomic nuclei, and by ionization of atoms (removing electrons) until they are slowed sufficiently to be captured past the electron cloud in a normal atom.

However, in such an association with an electron, the character of the bound proton is non inverse, and it remains a proton. The attraction of low-free energy gratis protons to any electrons present in normal matter (such every bit the electrons in normal atoms) causes gratuitous protons to stop and to form a new chemic bail with an atom. Such a bail happens at any sufficiently "common cold" temperature (that is, comparable to temperatures at the surface of the Sun) and with any blazon of cantlet. Thus, in interaction with any type of normal (non-plasma) matter, depression-velocity free protons practise not remain gratuitous simply are attracted to electrons in any atom or molecule with which they come up into contact, causing the proton and molecule to combine. Such molecules are and so said to be "protonated", and chemically they are simply compounds of hydrogen, often positively charged. Often, every bit a result, they become and so-called Brønsted acids. For example, a proton captured by a water molecule in water becomes hydronium, the aqueous cation H₃O⁺ .

Proton in chemistry [edit]

Atomic number [edit]

In chemical science, the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is known as the atomic number, which determines the chemical element to which the atom belongs. For instance, the atomic number of chlorine is 17; this means that each chlorine atom has 17 protons and that all atoms with 17 protons are chlorine atoms. The chemical properties of each atom are determined by the number of (negatively charged) electrons, which for neutral atoms is equal to the number of (positive) protons so that the total charge is cypher. For example, a neutral chlorine cantlet has 17 protons and 17 electrons, whereas a Cl⁻ anion has 17 protons and eighteen electrons for a total charge of −1.

All atoms of a given element are not necessarily identical, however. The number of neutrons may vary to form dissimilar isotopes, and energy levels may differ, resulting in dissimilar nuclear isomers. For example, at that place are two stable isotopes of chlorine: ³⁵
₁₇ Cl
with 35 − 17 = eighteen neutrons and ³⁷
₁₇ Cl
with 37 − 17 = 20 neutrons.

Hydrogen ion [edit]

Protium, the virtually common isotope of hydrogen, consists of one proton and one electron (information technology has no neutrons). The term "hydrogen ion" (H ⁺
) implies that that H-cantlet has lost its one electron, causing but a proton to remain. Thus, in chemical science, the terms "proton" and "hydrogen ion" (for the protium isotope) are used synonymously

The proton is a unique chemical species, being a bare nucleus. As a consequence it has no contained existence in the condensed land and is invariably found bound by a pair of electrons to another cantlet.

Ross Stewart, The Proton: Awarding to Organic Chemistry (1985, p. i)

In chemistry, the term proton refers to the hydrogen ion, H ⁺
. Since the diminutive number of hydrogen is 1, a hydrogen ion has no electrons and corresponds to a blank nucleus, consisting of a proton (and 0 neutrons for the nearly abundant isotope protium ^ane
_ane H
). The proton is a "blank accuse" with only about 1/64,000 of the radius of a hydrogen atom, and and then is extremely reactive chemically. The free proton, thus, has an extremely short lifetime in chemical systems such as liquids and information technology reacts immediately with the electron cloud of any available molecule. In aqueous solution, it forms the hydronium ion, H₃O⁺, which in turn is further solvated by water molecules in clusters such equally [H₅O_ii]⁺ and [H_ixO₄]⁺.^[51]

The transfer of H ⁺
in an acrid–base reaction is usually referred to as "proton transfer". The acrid is referred to as a proton donor and the base of operations as a proton acceptor. Likewise, biochemical terms such as proton pump and proton aqueduct refer to the move of hydrated H ⁺
ions.

The ion produced past removing the electron from a deuterium atom is known as a deuteron, not a proton. Besides, removing an electron from a tritium atom produces a triton.

Proton nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) [edit]

Also in chemistry, the term "proton NMR" refers to the observation of hydrogen-1 nuclei in (mostly organic) molecules by nuclear magnetic resonance. This method uses the quantized spin magnetic moment of the proton, which is due to its angular momentum (or spin), which in turn has a magnitude of half the reduced Planck constant. ( ${\displaystyle \hbar /2}$ ). The name refers to examination of protons as they occur in protium (hydrogen-1 atoms) in compounds, and does not imply that free protons exist in the compound being studied.

Homo exposure [edit]

The Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Packages (ALSEP) adamant that more than 95% of the particles in the solar wind are electrons and protons, in approximately equal numbers.^{[52] [53]}

Because the Solar Air current Spectrometer made continuous measurements, information technology was possible to measure how the Earth'due south magnetic field affects arriving solar wind particles. For nigh two-thirds of each orbit, the Moon is outside of the World'south magnetic field. At these times, a typical proton density was 10 to twenty per cubic centimeter, with most protons having velocities between 400 and 650 kilometers per 2nd. For about five days of each month, the Moon is inside the Globe's geomagnetic tail, and typically no solar current of air particles were detectable. For the remainder of each lunar orbit, the Moon is in a transitional region known every bit the magnetosheath, where the Earth's magnetic field affects the solar wind, merely does not completely exclude it. In this region, the particle flux is reduced, with typical proton velocities of 250 to 450 kilometers per second. During the lunar night, the spectrometer was shielded from the solar wind by the Moon and no solar wind particles were measured.^[52]

Protons also accept extrasolar origin from galactic cosmic rays, where they make up about xc% of the total particle flux. These protons often have college energy than solar air current protons, and their intensity is far more compatible and less variable than protons coming from the Sun, the production of which is heavily affected past solar proton events such every bit coronal mass ejections.

Research has been performed on the dose-rate effects of protons, as typically found in space travel, on man health.^{[53] [54]} To be more than specific, there are hopes to place what specific chromosomes are damaged, and to define the harm, during cancer development from proton exposure.^[53] Another written report looks into determining "the effects of exposure to proton irradiation on neurochemical and behavioral endpoints, including dopaminergic operation, amphetamine-induced conditioned taste aversion learning, and spatial learning and retention as measured by the Morris h2o maze.^[54] Electrical charging of a spacecraft due to interplanetary proton battery has also been proposed for study.^[55] At that place are many more studies that pertain to infinite travel, including galactic cosmic rays and their possible health effects, and solar proton event exposure.

The American Biostack and Soviet Biorack space travel experiments have demonstrated the severity of molecular damage induced past heavy ions on microorganisms including Artemia cysts.^[56]

Antiproton [edit]

CPT-symmetry puts stiff constraints on the relative properties of particles and antiparticles and, therefore, is open to stringent tests. For example, the charges of a proton and antiproton must sum to exactly zero. This equality has been tested to one part in x^eight . The equality of their masses has too been tested to better than one part in ten⁸ . By holding antiprotons in a Penning trap, the equality of the charge-to-mass ratio of protons and antiprotons has been tested to one office in 6×10^nine .^[57] The magnetic moment of antiprotons has been measured with error of viii×10⁻ⁱⁱⁱ nuclear Bohr magnetons, and is found to exist equal and opposite to that of a proton.^[58]

See also [edit]

• Fermion field
• Hydrogen
• Hydron (chemistry)
• List of particles
• Proton–proton chain
• Quark model
• Proton spin crisis
• Proton therapy

References [edit]

1. ^ "2018 CODATA Value: proton mass". The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Incertitude. NIST. 20 May 2019. Retrieved 2019-05-twenty .
2. ^ "2018 CODATA Value: proton mass in u". The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Incertitude. NIST. 20 May 2019. Retrieved 2022-09-xi .
3. ^ "2018 CODATA Value: proton mass energy equivalent in MeV". The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Dubiety. NIST. 20 May 2019. Retrieved 2022-09-11 .
4. ^ The SNO+ Collaboration; Anderson, Grand.; Andringa, S.; Arushanova, E.; Asahi, Due south.; Askins, M.; Auty, D. J.; Dorsum, A. R.; Barnard, Z.; Barros, N.; Bartlett, D. (2019-02-20). "Search for invisible modes of nucleon disuse in water with the SNO+ detector". Physical Review D. 99 (3): 032008. arXiv:1812.05552. Bibcode:2019PhRvD..99c2008A. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.99.032008. S2CID 96457175.
5. ^ ^{a b c} ""2018 CODATA recommended values"".
6. ^ Sahoo, B. Grand. (2017-01-17). "Improved limits on the hadronic and semihadronic $CP$ violating parameters and role of a night force carrier in the electric dipole moment of $^{199}\mathrm{Hg}$". Physical Review D. 95 (1): 013002. arXiv:1612.09371. doi:ten.1103/PhysRevD.95.013002. S2CID 119344894.
7. ^ "2018 CODATA Value: proton magnetic moment". The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty. NIST. twenty May 2019. Retrieved 2022-09-17 .
8. ^ "2018 CODATA Value: proton magnetic moment to nuclear magneton ratio". The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty. NIST. 20 May 2019. Retrieved 2022-09-17 .
9. ^ "proton | Definition, Mass, Accuse, & Facts". Encyclopedia Britannica . Retrieved 2018-10-twenty .
10. ^ Cho, Adrian (two Apr 2010). "Mass of the Common Quark Finally Nailed Down". Science Magazine. American Association for the Advocacy of Science. Retrieved 27 September 2014.
11. ^ "Proton size puzzle reinforced!". Paul Shearer Establish. 25 January 2013.
12. ^ ^{a b} Antognini, Aldo; et al. (25 Jan 2013). "Proton Construction from the Measurement of 2S-2P Transition Frequencies of Muonic Hydrogen" (PDF). Scientific discipline. 339 (6118): 417–420. Bibcode:2013Sci...339..417A. doi:ten.1126/scientific discipline.1230016. hdl:10316/79993. PMID 23349284. S2CID 346658.
13. ^ ^{a b} Bezginov, N.; Valdez, T.; Horbatsch, Grand.; Marsman, A.; Vutha, A. C.; Hessels, E. A. (2019-09-06). "A measurement of the atomic hydrogen Lamb shift and the proton accuse radius". Science. 365 (6457): 1007–1012. Bibcode:2019Sci...365.1007B. doi:10.1126/science.aau7807. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 31488684. S2CID 201845158.
14. ^ ^{a b} Xiong, W.; Gasparian, A.; Gao, H.; Dutta, D.; Khandaker, Yard.; Liyanage, Northward.; Pasyuk, E.; Peng, C.; Bai, X.; Ye, L.; Gnanvo, K. (November 2019). "A small proton charge radius from an electron–proton scattering experiment". Nature. 575 (7781): 147–150. Bibcode:2019Natur.575..147X. doi:10.1038/s41586-019-1721-2. ISSN 1476-4687. OSTI 1575200. PMID 31695211. S2CID 207831686.
15. ^ Köhn, C.; Ebert, U. (2015). "Calculation of beams of positrons, neutrons and protons associated with terrestrial gamma-ray flashes" (PDF). Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres. 23 (4): 1620–1635. Bibcode:2015JGRD..120.1620K. doi:10.1002/2014JD022229.
16. ^ Köhn, C.; Diniz, G.; Harakeh, Muhsin (2017). "Production mechanisms of leptons, photons, and hadrons and their possible feedback shut to lightning leaders". Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres. 122 (2): 1365–1383. Bibcode:2017JGRD..122.1365K. doi:10.1002/2016JD025445. PMC5349290. PMID 28357174.
17. ^ Adair, R. K. (1989). The Great Design: Particles, Fields, and Creation. Oxford University Printing. p. 214. Bibcode:1988gdpf.book.....A.
18. ^ Cottingham, Due west. North.; Greenwood, D. A. (1986). An Introduction to Nuclear Physics. Cambridge Academy Press. ISBN978-0-521-65733-4.
19. ^ Basdevant, J.-L.; Rich, J.; Spiro, 1000. (2005). Fundamentals in Nuclear Physics. Springer. p. 155. ISBN978-0-387-01672-half-dozen.
20. ^ Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry UCLA Eric R. Scerri Lecturer (2006-10-12). The Periodic Table : Its Story and Its Significance: Its Story and Its Significance. Oxford University Press. ISBN978-0-nineteen-534567-4.
21. ^ Wien, Wilhelm (1904). "Über positive Elektronen und dice Existenz hoher Atomgewichte". Annalen der Physik. 318 (4): 669–677. Bibcode:1904AnP...318..669W. doi:10.1002/andp.18943180404.
22. ^ Petrucci, R. H.; Harwood, W. S.; Herring, F. G. (2002). Full general Chemical science (8th ed.). Upper Saddle River, Due north.J. : Prentice Hall. p. 41. ISBN978-0-13-033445-9.
23. ^ See meeting report and announcement
24. ^ Romer A (1997). "Proton or prouton? Rutherford and the depths of the atom". American Periodical of Physics. 65 (eight): 707. Bibcode:1997AmJPh..65..707R. doi:ten.1119/1.18640.
25. ^ Rutherford reported acceptance by the British Clan in a footnote to Masson, O. (1921). "XXIV. The constitution of atoms". Philosophical Magazine. Series half dozen. 41 (242): 281–285. doi:10.1080/14786442108636219.
26. ^ OED "proton". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. Retrieved 24 March 2021. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
27. ^ Pais, A. (1986). Inward Spring . Oxford University Press. p. 296. ISBN0-nineteen-851997-4. Pais believed the outset science literature employ of the word proton occurs in "Physics at the British Association". Nature. 106 (2663): 357–358. 1920. Bibcode:1920Natur.106..357.. doi:x.1038/106357a0.
28. ^ Buccella, F.; Miele, G.; Rosa, L.; Santorelli, P.; Tuzi, T. (1989). "An upper limit for the proton lifetime in SO(10)". Physics Letters B. 233 (1–2): 178–182. Bibcode:1989PhLB..233..178B. doi:10.1016/0370-2693(89)90637-0.
29. ^ Lee, D.G.; Mohapatra, R.; Parida, M.; Rani, Thou. (1995). "Predictions for the proton lifetime in minimal nonsupersymmetric SO(10) models: An update". Concrete Review D. 51 (one): 229–235. arXiv:hep-ph/9404238. Bibcode:1995PhRvD..51..229L. doi:x.1103/PhysRevD.51.229. PMID 10018289. S2CID 119341478.
30. ^ "Proton lifetime is longer than x³⁴ years". Kamioka Observatory. Nov 2009.
31. ^ Nishino, H.; et al. (2009). "Search for Proton Decay via p→e⁺π⁰ and p→μ⁺π⁰ in a Large Water Cherenkov Detector". Physical Review Letters. 102 (14): 141801. arXiv:0903.0676. Bibcode:2009PhRvL.102n1801N. doi:ten.1103/PhysRevLett.102.141801. PMID 19392425. S2CID 32385768.
32. ^ Ahmed, S.; et al. (2004). "Constraints on Nucleon Decay via Invisible Modes from the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory". Physical Review Letters. 92 (10): 102004. arXiv:hep-ex/0310030. Bibcode:2004PhRvL..92j2004A. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.92.102004. PMID 15089201. S2CID 119336775.
33. ^ Vanzella, Daniel A. T.; Matsas, George Due east. A. (2001-09-25). "Decay of Accelerated Protons and the Being of the Fulling–Davies–Unruh Result". Physical Review Letters. 87 (15): 151301. doi:ten.1103/PhysRevLett.87.151301. hdl:11449/66594. PMID 11580689. S2CID 3202478.
34. ^ Matsas, George E. A.; Vanzella, Daniel A. T. (1999-03-xvi). "Decay of protons and neutrons induced by acceleration". Concrete Review D. 59 (9): 094004. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.59.094004. hdl:11449/65768. S2CID 2646123.
35. ^ Vanzella, Daniel A. T.; Matsas, George E. A. (2000-12-06). "Weak decay of uniformly accelerated protons and related processes". Concrete Review D. 63 (i): 014010. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.63.014010. hdl:11449/66417. S2CID 12735961.
36. ^ Matsas, George Eastward. A.; Vanzella, Daniel a. T. (2002-12-01). "The fulling–davies–unruh issue is mandatory: the proton's testimony". International Journal of Modern Physics D. 11 (ten): 1573–1577. arXiv:gr-qc/0205078. doi:10.1142/S0218271802002918. ISSN 0218-2718. S2CID 16555072.
37. ^ Watson, A. (2004). The Quantum Quark. Cambridge University Press. pp. 285–286. ISBN978-0-521-82907-6.
38. ^ Smith, Timothy Paul (2003). Hidden Worlds: Hunting for Quarks in Ordinary Matter. Princeton University Printing. Bibcode:2003hwhq.book.....S. ISBN978-0-691-05773-6.
39. ^ André Walker-Loud (xix November 2018). "Dissecting the Mass of the Proton". Physics. Vol. 11. p. 118. Bibcode:2018PhyOJ..eleven..118W. doi:10.1103/Physics.11.118 . Retrieved 2021-06-04 .
40. ^ See this news report Archived 2009-04-16 at the Wayback Motorcar and links
41. ^ ^{a b} Durr, S.; Fodor, Z.; Frison, J.; Hoelbling, C.; Hoffmann, R.; Katz, S.D.; Krieg, S.; Kurth, T.; Lellouch, L.; Lippert, T.; Szabo, M.K.; Vulvert, G. (2008). "Ab Initio Conclusion of Light Hadron Masses". Science. 322 (5905): 1224–1227. arXiv:0906.3599. Bibcode:2008Sci...322.1224D. CiteSeerX10.1.1.249.2858. doi:10.1126/scientific discipline.1163233. PMID 19023076. S2CID 14225402.
42. ^ Perdrisat, C. F.; Punjabi, 5.; Vanderhaeghen, M. (2007). "Nucleon electromagnetic class factors". Progress in Particle and Nuclear Physics. 59 (2): 694–764. arXiv:hep-ph/0612014. Bibcode:2007PrPNP..59..694P. doi:x.1016/j.ppnp.2007.05.001. S2CID 15894572.
43. ^ Boffi, Sigfrido; Pasquini, Barbara (2007). "Generalized parton distributions and the structure of the nucleon". Rivista del Nuovo Cimento. 30 (9): 387. arXiv:0711.2625. Bibcode:2007NCimR..30..387B. doi:10.1393/ncr/i2007-10025-7. S2CID 15688157.
44. ^ Joshua, Erlich (December 2008). "Recent Results in AdS/QCD". Proceedings, eighth Conference on Quark Confinement and the Hadron Spectrum, September 1–6, 2008, Mainz, Germany. arXiv:0812.4976. Bibcode:2008arXiv0812.4976E.
45. ^ Pietro, Colangelo; Alex, Khodjamirian (October 2000). "QCD Sum Rules, a Modernistic Perspective". In Thousand., Shifman (ed.). At the Borderland of Particle Physics: Handbook of QCD. World Scientific Publishing. pp. 1495–1576. arXiv:hep-ph/0010175. Bibcode:2001afpp.book.1495C. CiteSeerXten.1.i.346.9301. doi:x.1142/9789812810458_0033. ISBN978-981-02-4445-three. S2CID 16053543.
46. ^ Pohl, Randolf; et al. (eight July 2010). "The size of the proton". Nature. 466 (7303): 213–216. Bibcode:2010Natur.466..213P. doi:10.1038/nature09250. PMID 20613837. S2CID 4424731.
47. ^ Researchers Observes Unexpectedly Small Proton Radius in a Precision Experiment. AZo Nano. July 9, 2010
48. ^ Conover, Emily (2017-04-xviii). "There's nonetheless a lot we don't know nearly the proton". Science News . Retrieved 2017-04-29 .
49. ^ ^{a b} Carlson, Carl E. (May 2015). "The proton radius puzzle". Progress in Particle and Nuclear Physics. 82: 59–77. arXiv:1502.05314. Bibcode:2015PrPNP..82...59C. doi:10.1016/j.ppnp.2015.01.002. S2CID 54915587.
50. ^ Burkert, V. D.; Elouadrhiri, 50.; Girod, F. X. (16 May 2018). "The force per unit area distribution inside the proton". Nature. 557 (7705): 396–399. Bibcode:2018Natur.557..396B. doi:ten.1038/s41586-018-0060-z. OSTI 1438388. PMID 29769668. S2CID 21724781.
51. ^ Headrick, J. One thousand.; Diken, Due east. Chiliad.; Walters, R. S.; Hammer, N. I.; Christie, R. A.; Cui, J.; Myshakin, E. M.; Duncan, Grand. A.; Johnson, M. A.; Hashemite kingdom of jordan, Yard. D. (2005). "Spectral Signatures of Hydrated Proton Vibrations in Water Clusters". Science. 308 (5729): 1765–1769. Bibcode:2005Sci...308.1765H. doi:10.1126/scientific discipline.1113094. PMID 15961665. S2CID 40852810.
52. ^ ^{a b} "Apollo 11 Mission". Lunar and Planetary Establish. 2009. Retrieved 2009-06-12 .
53. ^ ^{a b c} "Space Travel and Cancer Linked? Stony Brook Researcher Secures NASA Grant to Report Effects of Space Radiations". Brookhaven National Laboratory. 12 Dec 2007. Archived from the original on 26 November 2008. Retrieved 2009-06-12 .
54. ^ ^{a b} Shukitt-Hale, B.; Szprengiel, A.; Pluhar, J.; Rabin, B. M.; Joseph, J. A. (2004). "The effects of proton exposure on neurochemistry and behavior". Advances in Space Research. 33 (8): 1334–nine. Bibcode:2004AdSpR..33.1334S. doi:x.1016/j.asr.2003.x.038. PMID 15803624. Archived from the original on 2011-07-25. Retrieved 2009-06-12 .
55. ^ Dark-green, N. Westward.; Frederickson, A. R. (2006). "A Study of Spacecraft Charging due to Exposure to Interplanetary Protons" (PDF). AIP Briefing Proceedings. 813: 694–700. Bibcode:2006AIPC..813..694G. CiteSeerXten.1.1.541.4495. doi:ten.1063/ane.2169250. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-05-27. Retrieved 2009-06-12 .
56. ^ Planel, H. (2004). Space and life: an introduction to space biology and medicine. CRC Press. pp. 135–138. ISBN978-0-415-31759-7.
57. ^ Gabrielse, Yard. (2006). "Antiproton mass measurements". International Journal of Mass Spectrometry. 251 (ii–3): 273–280. Bibcode:2006IJMSp.251..273G. doi:10.1016/j.ijms.2006.02.013.
58. ^ "Base precisely measures antiproton's magnetic moment". CERN . Retrieved 2022-03-04 .

External links [edit]

• Media related to Protons at Wikimedia Eatables
• Particle Data Group at LBL
• Large Hadron Collider
• Eaves, Laurence; Copeland, Ed; Padilla, Antonio (Tony) (2010). "The shrinking proton". 60 Symbols. Brady Haran for the University of Nottingham.

What Is Mass Of Proton,

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton

Posted by: williamswict2001.blogspot.com

Share this post